Appendix: quick reference

The three complementizer pairs

The relativizer

Basic structures

Declarative embedding

[Subject] mena [Embedded statement] meno [Main verb]

mia mena shia to wepu meno shelomui
1SG DECL.COMP 3SG PST go DECL.COMP.CLOSE understand
(I understand that they left.)

Interrogative embedding

[Subject] wela [Embedded question] welo [Main verb]

mia wela shia to wepu welo phaelo
1SG INT.COMP 3SG PST go INT.COMP.CLOSE feel
(I wonder whether they left.)

Quotative embedding

[Subject] shola [Quoted material] sholo [Verb of speaking or receiving speech]

shia shola mia wepu sholo to haolu
3SG QUOT.COMP 1SG go QUOT.COMP.CLOSE PST speak
(They said: "I am leaving.")

Relative clause

[rena CLAUSE] NOUN

rena nophi kealo miona
REL story create person
(the person who creates stories)

Key distinctions

mena/meno vs. shola/sholo

Example contrast: - shia mena shia wepu meno to haolu = They said that they were leaving. - shia shola mia wepu sholo to haolu = They said: "I am leaving."

wela/welo vs. wa vs. lu

Nesting rules

1. Each opener requires its own closer - Every mena needs one meno - Every wela needs one welo - Every shola needs one sholo

1. Closers match in reverse order - Last opened = first closed - Like parentheses: ( [ ] ) not ( [ ) ]

1. Types close their own type - mena closes with meno (not welo or sholo)

Nested example:

mia mena thia wela shia wepu welo phaelo meno shelomui
    └─────────────────────────────────────────┘
              └───────────────────┘

Common verbs with complementizers

With mena/meno (statements)

With wela/welo (questions)

With shola/sholo (quotations)

The -a/-o pattern

Phi uses a consistent vowel pattern:

• -a endings open (mena, wela, shola, rena)
• -o endings close (meno, welo, sholo)

Learn once, apply everywhere.

Checklist for correct sentences

Before finalizing an embedded clause:

• [ ] Opener present (mena, wela, shola, or rena)
• [ ] Closer present if required (meno, welo, sholo)
• [ ] Closer positioned correctly (after embedded verb, before main verb)
• [ ] No closer after rena (noun closes it)
• [ ] Embedded clause has complete structure (subject, verb)
• [ ] Nesting order correct (closers match openers in reverse)
• [ ] Correct complementizer type for meaning

Quick phonetic reference

Glossary

Closer: The second element of a complementizer pair that marks where embedded content ends. (meno, welo, sholo)

Complementizer: A function word that introduces a subordinate clause, marking its type and relationship to the main clause.

Content reporting: Conveying the meaning of what someone said, with pronouns shifted to the reporter's perspective. Uses mena/meno.

Declarative: A statement; a clause that asserts something is true or false.

Embedded clause: A clause that functions inside another clause, typically as subject or object.

Head noun: In a relative clause, the noun being modified by the clause.

Interrogative: A question; a clause that asks about uncertainty.

Nesting: Placing one embedded clause inside another.

Opener: The first element of a complementizer pair that marks where embedded content begins. (mena, wela, shola)

Quotative: Exact quotation; preserving someone's words verbatim. Uses shola/sholo.

Relative clause: A clause that modifies a noun, describing it by what it does or experiences.

Relativizer: The word that introduces a relative clause. (rena)

SOV: Subject-Object-Verb word order, where the verb comes at the end of the clause.

Further study

• Chapter 19 of the manual: Subordinate Clauses
• Chapter 20 of the manual: Relative Clauses
• Relative clauses pamphlet: guide to rena
• complementizer_reference.md: Technical grammar reference

End of pamphlet